ادغام زیست‌پالایی و فناوری پیل سوختی میکروبی: نقش میکروارگانیسم‌های خاک در تجزیه آلاینده‌ها و تولید زیستی الکتریسیته

نوع مقاله : مروری

نویسندگان

1 گروه مهندسی محیط زیست، دانشکده محیط زیست، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران.

2 گروه مهندسی محیط زیست، دانشکده محیط زیست، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران

3 دانشیار گروه میکروبیولوژی، دانشکده زیست شناسی دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران

چکیده

با تشدید نگرانی‌های جهانی پیرامون آلودگی آب و خاک و پیامدهای فزاینده تغییرات اقلیمی، نیاز به فناوری‌های نوینی که بتوانند به‌طور هم‌زمان زیست‌پالایی آلاینده‌ها و تولید انرژی پاک را محقق سازند، بیش از پیش احساس می‌شود. در این میان، پیل‌های سوختی میکروبی (MFCs) و گونه‌های خاکی رسوبی آن‌ها (SMFCs) به‌عنوان سامانه‌های زیست‌الکتروشیمیایی نوظهور مطرح شده‌اند که قادرند انرژی شیمیایی مواد آلی را از طریق فعالیت متابولیکی میکروارگانیسم‌های الکتروژن، به جریان الکتریکی تبدیل کنند و هم‌زمان در تجزیه و حذف آلاینده‌های مقاوم نقش داشته باشند. جوامع میکروبی مستقر در رسوبات و لایه‌های خاکی، به‌ویژه از طریق تشکیل زیست‌لایه‌های آندی و تسهیل انتقال مستقیم یا واسطه‌ای الکترون، نقشی تعیین‌کننده در عملکرد و کارایی این سامانه‌ها ایفا می‌کنند. با این حال، ماهیت باز و دینامیک محیط‌های عملیاتی SMFCs منجر به توالی اکولوژیکی میکروبی می‌شود که می‌تواند پایداری الکتروشیمیایی و بازده بلندمدت سامانه را تحت تأثیر قرار دهد. علی‌رغم پیشرفت‌های قابل توجه در این حوزه، محدودیت در تنوع گونه‌های الکتروژن کارآمد، رقابت میان میکروارگانیسم‌های الکتروژن و غیرالکتروژن، و چالش‌های مرتبط با پایداری زیست‌لایه‌ها همچنان از موانع اصلی توسعه و به‌کارگیری این فناوری‌ها در مقیاس صنعتی به شمار می‌روند. این مقاله مروری با تمرکز بر جنبه‌های میکروبی و الکتروشیمیایی پیل‌های سوختی میکروبی و انواع مبتنی بر خاک و رسوب آن‌ها، به بررسی سازوکارهای انتقال الکترون، پویایی جوامع میکروبی در نواحی آندی و کاتدی، و تأثیر پارامترهای الکتروشیمیایی بر عملکرد سامانه می‌پردازد. افزون بر این، چشم‌اندازهای آینده شامل توسعه کنسرسیوم‌های میکروبی مهندسی‌شده با عملکردهای مکمل، به‌کارگیری راهبردهای تحریک زیستی برای تنظیم جانشینی میکروبی، و بهینه‌سازی شرایط عملیاتی به‌منظور افزایش هم‌زمان بازده تولید برق و کارایی زیست‌پالایی مورد بحث قرار می‌گیرد. یافته‌های این مرور می‌تواند زمینه‌ساز طراحی سامانه‌هایی پایدارتر و کارآمدتر برای مدیریت محیط‌زیست و تولید انرژی‌های تجدیدپذیر باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

Integrating Bioremediation and Microbial Fuel Cell Technologies: The Role of Soil Microbial Communities In Contaminant Degradation and Bioelectricity Generation

نویسندگان [English]

  • Shayan Shariati 1
  • Hadi Mosayebzade 2
  • Hamid Moghimi 3
1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran.
3 Department of Microbial Biotechnology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
چکیده [English]

With growing global concerns about soil and water pollution and the escalating impacts of climate change, there is an urgent need for innovative technologies capable of simultaneously achieving bioremediation and clean energy generation. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and their sediment- or soil-based variants (SMFCs) have emerged as promising bioelectrochemical systems that convert the chemical energy of organic matter into electrical energy through the metabolic activity of electrogenic microorganisms, while concurrently degrading resistant pollutants. Microbial communities residing in sediments and soil layers, particularly those forming anodic biofilms, play a crucial role in system performance by facilitating direct and mediated electron transfer. However, the open and dynamic nature of SMFC environments leads to complex microbial succession, influencing the electrochemical stability and long-term efficiency of the system. Despite significant progress, challenges such as limited diversity of efficient electroactive species, competition between non-electrogenic and electrogenic microorganisms, and biofilm instability continue to restrict large-scale deployment. This review focuses on the microbial and electrochemical aspects of MFCs and SMFCs, discussing electron transfer mechanisms, microbial community dynamics in anodic and cathodic zones, and the influence of electrochemical parameters on system performance. Future perspectives include the development of engineered microbial consortia with complementary functionalities, integration of biostimulation strategies to regulate microbial succession, and optimization of operational conditions to enhance both power generation and bioremediation efficiency. The insights presented in this review may facilitate the design of more sustainable and efficient systems for environmental management and renewable energy production.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Bioremediation
  • Green energy production
  • Microbial fuel cell (MFC)
  • Organic and inorganic contaminants Soil and water pollution

Aim  

In response to growing global concerns over environmental degradation and soil contamination, as well as the urgent need for sustainable energy alternatives, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the bioelectrochemical mechanisms governing soil microbial fuel cells (SMFCs). These systems offer a dual-function strategy for simultaneous soil bioremediation and renewable bioelectricity generation. By integrating recent advances in electroactive microbial communities, electron transfer pathways, and system optimization strategies, this work investigates the dynamic interactions between microbial processes and environmental factors influencing SMFC performance. Furthermore, it critically evaluates key technological challenges, including scalability, long-term operational stability, and adaptability to variable environmental conditions. Ultimately, the study seeks to bridge existing knowledge gaps and enhance the practical potential of SMFCs as a sustainable solution to contemporary environmental and energy challenges.

Method

In this study, a detailed literature review was conducted on scientific papers and technical reports published between 1996 and 2025. All sources were collected from reputable databases and publishers such as Google, Google Scholar, SID, CAS, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, Springer, Frontiers, Nature, MDPI, and other leading scientific repositories. A total of 179 publications were reviewed, including 23 from 2023–2025, 67 from 2020–2022, 64 from 2014–2019, 9 from 2010–2013, and 16 from 1996–2009. This distribution reflects a balanced integration of foundational and recent research, ensuring both historical depth and contemporary relevance. The analysis followed a multi-pronged approach emphasizing the novelty, reliability, and methodological rigor of the reviewed works to identify trends, gaps, and future research directions.

Data Collection:

Data were collected from peer-reviewed journals, conference papers, and technical reports accessed through trusted databases and publishers such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, CAS, SID, Elsevier, Springer, Frontiers, Nature, and MDPI. The selection emphasized high-impact and methodologically sound studies relevant to the research scope. To ensure accuracy and recency, publications from 2020–2025 were prioritized, while key earlier works were included to provide conceptual grounding. This systematic process ensured comprehensive and reliable coverage of the field.

Findings

This review demonstrates that microbial fuel cells (MFCs), particularly soil microbial fuel cells (SMFCs), offer a promising bioelectrochemical platform for concurrent soil bioremediation and sustainable bioelectricity generation. The key findings are summarized below:

Microbial and Electrochemical Mechanisms: Electroactive microorganisms (EAMs) are central to the bioelectrochemical performance of microbial fuel cells (MFCs). Species including Geobacter, Shewanella, Pseudomonas, Clostridium, Desulfobulbus, Rhodoferax, and Bacillus can transfer electrons generated from the oxidation of primarily organic (and occasionally inorganic) substrates to extracellular electron acceptors, such as electrodes. This process, known as extracellular electron transfer (EET), underpins the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy in MFCs.

EET in microbial systems occurs through two principal mechanisms:

Direct Electron Transfer (DET): Electrons are transferred directly from the microbial cell to the anode through outer-membrane c-type cytochromes, conductive pili (nanowires), or membrane-bound redox proteins. Notable examples include Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis, which utilize conductive appendages and surface cytochromes (e.g., OmcZ, MtrC, and OmcA) to enable efficient charge transfer over micrometer-scale distances.

Mediated Electron Transfer (MET): Certain microorganisms secrete soluble redox mediators—such as flavins, quinones, phenazines, or humic substances—that shuttle electrons between the cell and electrode. For example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces pyocyanin and phenazine-1-carboxamide, enhancing anodic conductivity.

In addition, syntrophic interactions within mixed consortia sustain continuous electron flow and redox balance. Fermentative bacteria (e.g., Clostridium, Bacteroides) hydrolyze complex organics into low-molecular-weight metabolites (e.g., acetate, formate), which serve as substrates for EAMs (e.g., Geobacter, Desulfobulbus). This interdependence enhances substrate utilization, stabilizes anodic biofilms, and improves long-term bioelectrochemical performance and system resilience.

Environmental and Operational Factors: The performance of microbial fuel cells (MFCs), particularly SMFCs, is governed by several environmental and operational parameters that regulate microbial metabolism, biofilm activity, and electrochemical efficiency. Key factors include:

pH: Optimal operation occurs at a near-neutral pH of 6.5–7.5, where microbial activity and electron transfer reach their highest efficiency. At around pH 6.5, systems have achieved up to 99% Cr(VI) and 78% p-chlorophenol removal, with voltage outputs near 540 mV and power densities of approximately 25 mW/m². Deviations from this range reduce biofilm stability and energy output.

Temperature: This parameter critically controls microbial metabolism and reaction kinetics. The mesophilic range (25–35 °C) supports peak energy generation and pollutant degradation. Extreme temperatures weaken microbial activity, destabilize anodic biofilms, and compromise long-term efficiency.

External Resistance: The balance between external and internal resistance determines the overall electrical performance of microbial fuel cells. The highest power output is typically achieved when the external resistance (Rₑₓₜ) approximately equals the internal resistance (Rᵢₙₜ). However, improper resistance adjustment can lead to significant power losses and inefficient energy recovery.

Electrode Material and Structure: Electrode composition and morphology significantly affect electron transfer, microbial attachment, and system stability. Materials such as graphite felt, carbon cloth, and CNT composites offer high surface area, good conductivity, and excellent biocompatibility. Enhancing surface roughness and mechanical strength increases microbial adhesion and improves both current generation and pollutant removal efficiency.

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) and pH Gradients: Efficient proton transport through the proton exchange membrane is essential for maintaining charge balance and stable electrochemical performance. The PEM enables protons produced in the anode to migrate toward the cathode, where they react with electrons and oxygen to form water. Limited proton transfer causes pH imbalances—acidification in the anode and alkalization in the cathode—reducing system output. Maintaining a neutral anodic pH (~7) enhances proton conductivity, biofilm growth, and overall stability.

Substrate Concentration: Substrate type and load directly influence microbial oxidation rates and current generation. Moderate concentrations of easily degradable substrates (e.g., acetate, glucose) sustain consistent power output and pollutant degradation. Excessive substrate levels can inhibit microbial activity, while low concentrations limit electron flow and energy recovery.

Bioremediation Efficiency: Soil-based microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) demonstrate remarkable dual functionality, achieving efficient soil bioremediation while generating bioelectric energy. The integrated oxidation–reduction reactions mediated by electroactive microorganisms enable simultaneous degradation of organic pollutants and reduction of heavy metals.

Organic Contaminants: SMFCs effectively degrade complex hydrocarbons such as PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), TPHs (total petroleum hydrocarbons), antibiotics, and resistant pesticides, achieving 60–95% removal efficiency while simultaneously generating 20–80 mW/m² of power. Enhanced microbial enrichment near the anode promotes oxidative degradation, facilitated by electroactive species like Geobacter, Desulfobulbus, Pseudomonas, and Clostridium. The bioelectric current accelerates oxidation–reduction kinetics, improving pollutant mineralization without the need for external energy input.

Emerging contaminants: Recent SMFC configurations show promising results in removing phthalates (DMP, DEHP) and mixed contaminants. Microbial communities enriched with Geobacter and Pseudomonas enhance electron transfer and biodegradation pathways. Synergistic consortia of fungi and bacteria (e.g., Aspergillus–Glutamicibacter systems) further improve removal efficiencies through enzymatic and biosurfactant-assisted mechanisms, enhancing the bioavailability of hydrophobic pollutants.

Heavy Metals: Reduction of metals including Cr(VI), Pb(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) primarily occurs at the cathodic zone through redox reactions where metal ions act as terminal electron acceptors. Migration of positively charged metal ions toward the cathode under the induced electric field enhances recovery efficiency. Typical results show 40–70% decreases in metal concentrations in soil and plant tissues after SMFC operation.

Conclusion

This review highlights the remarkable potential of soil-based microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) as dual function bioelectrochemical systems capable of simultaneously generating renewable electricity and remediating contaminated soils. By employing diverse microbial consortia—including both native and engineered electrogenic species—and utilizing a broad spectrum of organic and inorganic substrates, such as environmental pollutants or co-substrates, SMFCs can operate autonomously, requiring no external energy input or complex maintenance. Under optimized conditions, these systems have demonstrated power densities of up to 334 W/m² and removal efficiencies exceeding 90% for persistent organic contaminants (e.g., hydrocarbons and antibiotics) as well as for heavy metals including Cr(VI), Pb(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II).

The self-sustaining operation of SMFCs further enables their use as self-powered biosensors for real-time monitoring of soil quality and redox dynamics. Despite notable progress, several challenges persist—particularly environmental optimization, high internal resistance, and limited long-term stability. Addressing these limitations requires interdisciplinary advances focused on the isolation of novel electrogenic microorganisms, enhancement of extracellular electron-transfer (EET) mechanisms, and engineering of syntrophic biofilm networks to improve both electrochemical performance and pollutant degradation efficiency.

Future research should emphasize the integration of bio-stimulation and bio-augmentation strategies, the development of cost-effective and sustainable electrode and membrane materials, and the scaling-up of SMFC configurations under realistic field conditions. Overall, SMFCs represent a sustainable and eco-efficient technology that bridges clean-energy generation with soil-ecosystem restoration, offering a promising pathway toward global environmental resilience and sustainable development.

 

 

 

 

Authors Contribution

“Conceptualization, Shayan Shariati, Hadi Mosayeb Zade, Hamid Moghimi; Methodology, Shayan Shariati, Hadi Mosayeb Zade, Hamid Moghimi; Data curation, Shayan Shariati, Hadi Mosayeb Zade; Writing—original draft preparation, Shayan Shariati, Hadi Mosayeb Zade; Funding acquisition and project administration, Shayan Shariati; Visualization, Shayan Shariati, Hadi Mosayeb Zade; Results Interpretation, Shayan Shariati, Hamid Moghimi; Review and Editing, Final report review, Shayan Shariati, Hamid Moghimi.” All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available based on request from the authors.

Ethical considerations

The authors avoided data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and misconduct.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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تحقیقات آب و خاک ایران
دوره 57، شماره 1
فروردین 1405
صفحه 209-247

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