Investigate the environmental and human impacts and challenges of emerging PFAS contaminants and solutions for managing and remediating them in a sustainable manner

Document Type : Review

Authors

1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran,

3 Department of Department of Planning, Environmental Management, and HSE, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran.

Abstract

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), as emerging synthetic pollutants with high persistence and potential health risks, have increasingly gained attention. Due to their specific physicochemical properties, these substances are resistant to degradation in the environment and can remain for extended periods. PFAS are utilized in various industries, such as the production of water-resistant textiles, non-stick cookware, food packaging, and fire-fighting foams. They enter the environment through numerous pathways, including industrial wastewater and the food chain, causing issues such as endocrine disorders, reduced immune function, and pregnancy risks. Neglecting this matter can bring about irreparable consequences for food security, human health, and sustainable development. This study emphasizes the necessity of sustainable management of PFAS, highlighting that without swift actions, these compounds pose a serious threat to ecosystems. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the permissible level of PFAS in drinking water is 70 ng/L, and concentrations above this limit can result in hormonal disruptions and weakened immunity. PFAS concentrations vary widely in different environments: 300 to 125,000 ng/L in leachate, 0.01 to 460,000 µg/Kg in soil, and 0.2 to 500,000 µg/Kg in biosolids. Thermal methods are effective in removing PFAS from soil but are costly and environmentally disruptive, while biological approaches like phytoremediation are eco-friendlier. For water, advanced technologies such as reverse osmosis, activated carbon, and ion exchange are among the most effective methods, capable of removing more than 90% of PFAS. Strategies such as reducing PFAS production by 30–40% over the next decade could significantly contribute to safeguarding ecosystem health and sustainability.

Keywords

Main Subjects

Aim

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) constitute a class of synthetic chemicals distinguished by strong carbon–fluorine bonds and remarkable persistence in the environment. Due to their resistance to physical, chemical, and biological degradation, PFAS pose significant risks to human health and ecosystems. These chemicals predominantly find their way into soil, water bodies, and landfills via industrial effluents, fire-fighting foams, and consumer products such as non-stick cookware and waterproof textiles. Growing evidence of their association with adverse health effects (e.g., endocrine disruption, compromised immune system, and increased cancer risk) has heightened research and regulatory interest in PFAS. Hence, the purpose of this extended abstract is to comprehensively explore the routes of PFAS contamination in soils, surface and groundwater, landfills, and food chains, and to underscore effective strategies for their management and remediation.

Method

In this study, a detailed literature review was conducted on scientific papers and technical reports focusing on the years 2023 and 2024, as well as several foundational sources from 2022. A multi-pronged approach guided the investigation:

Data Collection:

Relevant publications on PFAS contamination, toxicity, environmental fate, and legislative measures were identified through databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed.

Review of Regulatory Frameworks:

Existing regulations and advisories worldwide (particularly those from the United States, European Union, Australia, and select Asian countries) were examined to provide insights into permissible concentration limits of PFAS in soil, water, sludge, and biosolids.

Focus on Contamination Pathways:

Studies detailing PFAS transport in landfills (including municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, and industrial effluents), their accumulation in biota, and subsequent implications for human health were systematically analyzed.

Assessment of Treatment Technologies:

Emerging and conventional treatment practices—including adsorption (e.g., granular activated carbon), ion exchange resins, thermal methods, electrochemical oxidation, and bioremediation—were reviewed to assess effectiveness, limitations, and feasibility.

Findings

The review reveals that PFAS contamination arises through both primary sources (e.g., direct industrial discharge, usage of aqueous film-forming foams in military bases and airports) and secondary sources (e.g., use of biosolids as fertilizers, groundwater irrigation with contaminated water, and long-range atmospheric transport). Key findings include:

Environmental Distribution:

Contamination Pathways: Focus on industrial discharge, landfill leachate (300–125,000 ng/L), and agricultural biosolid application.

Regulatory Review: Evaluation of global PFAS limits in soil (0.01–460,000 µg/kg), water (70 ng/L U.S. EPA drinking water limit), and biosolids (0.2–500,000 µg/kg).

Water: PFAS concentrations in U.S. drinking water often exceed the EPA advisory limit (70 ng/L), with studies indicating potential links to hormonal disruptions (e.g., thyroid dysfunction).

Soil: Agricultural soils near industrial sites show PFAS levels up to 460,000 µg/kg, with short-chain PFAS (e.g., PFBA) exhibiting higher mobility.

Landfills: Leachate concentrations reach 125,000 ng/L, influenced by landfill age and design.

Health Risks:

Elevated levels of PFAS in drinking water (often above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency limit of 70 ng/L) increase the likelihood of endocrine disturbances, immune system impairment, reduced vaccine response, hepatic toxicity, and heightened cancer risks.

Endocrine Disruption: PFOS exposure correlates with reduced thyroid hormone levels.

Immune Suppression: Children with PFAS serum levels >20 ng/mL show 40% lower vaccine antibody titers.

Cancer: PFOA exposure increases kidney cancer risk

Remediation Efficacy:

Treatment Technologies: Assessment of thermal methods (effective but costly), adsorption (>90% removal via activated carbon), and bioremediation (eco-friendly but less efficient).

Water: Reverse osmosis and activated carbon achieve >90% PFAS removal.

Soil: Thermal desorption reduces PFAS by 85–99%, but it is very expensive.

Emerging Methods: Phytoremediation shows 30–60% efficiency for short-chain PFAS.

Conclusion

PFAS pose irreversible threats to ecosystems and human health. Immediate actions include:

Reducing PFAS production by 30–40% by 2035.

Enforcing stricter regulations (e.g., EU’s REACH).

Investing in cost-effective remediation (e.g., hybrid adsorption-biological systems).
Global collaboration is critical to address contamination hotspots and safeguard food security.

Author Contributions

“Conceptualization, Shayan Shariati, Mehrdad Manafianvar, Majid Baghdadi, Touraj Naseabadi; Methodology, Shayan Shariati, Mehrdad Manafianvar; Data curation, Shayan Shariati, Mehrdad Manafianvar; Writing—original draft preparation, Shayan Shariati, Mehrdad Manafianvar; Funding acquisition and project administration, Shayan Shariati; Visualization, Shayan Shariati, Mehrdad Manafianvar; Results Interpretation, Shayan Shariati, Majid Baghdadi, Touraj Naseabadi; Review and Editing, Final report review, Shayan Shariati, Majid Baghdadi, Touraj Naseabadi.” All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available based on request from the authors.

Acknowledgements

This work is based upon research funded by Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) under project No. 4030287

Ethical considerations

The authors avoided data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and misconduct.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research
Volume 56, Issue 9
December 2025
Pages 2301-2336

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