Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1 Department of Irrigation and Reclamation Engineering, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
2 Department, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
3 Civil Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Shahid Chamaran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Abstract
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EXTENDED ABSTRACT
In the face of global climate crises and diminishing water resources, evaluating the performance of irrigation schemes has become critical for ensuring agricultural productivity, food security, and social-environmental sustainability (Garcia-Espinal et al., 2024; Hashemi et al., 2024). Beyond technical metrics, assessing social dimensions such as stakeholder participation, equitable water distribution, and satisfaction is essential for sustainable water management (Rahmati & Monem, 2022). The Sefidroud Irrigation Scheme, one of Iran’s largest, supports over 180,000 hectares of paddy fields in Guilan Province, yet faces challenges like infrastructure degradation, inequitable water allocation, and limited stakeholder engagement (Seyed Hoshiyar et al., 2021). While prior studies have focused on technical and hydraulic performance, the social performance of this scheme, particularly from the perspective of farmers, remains underexplored. This study aims to address this gap by evaluating the social performance of the Langarud canal and its 10 subsidiary canals using a multidimensional approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative methods to inform sustainable irrigation management.
This research employed a mixed-methods approach to assess the social performance of the Langarud canal, located in the D2 subunit of the Sefidroud Irrigation Scheme, which supplies water to 5,514 hectares of rice fields through 10 subsidiary canals. Data were collected from 120 farmers (out of a calculated sample of 365, due to logistical constraints, resulting in an 8.95% margin of error) using stratified sampling to ensure representation across upstream, midstream, and downstream regions, farm sizes, and participation levels. A structured questionnaire, based on FAO (1999) frameworks, measured four key indicators: Farmer Satisfaction Index (FSI), Water Access Difficulty Index (WADI), Economic Impact Index (EII), and Farmer Participation Index (FPI), using a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire’s validity was confirmed by water engineering experts and local farmers, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 indicating high reliability. Weights for the indicators (FSI: 0.25, WADI: 0.25, EII: 0.15, FPI: 0.35) were determined via the Delphi method. Additionally, semi-structured interviews with 15 farmers and 5 local managers were conducted to explore barriers to participation and water access. Qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis with open and axial coding in Python (using pandas and NLTK libraries), with themes validated by two independent researchers. Quantitative data were processed in Python (pandas, numpy, scipy) using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and K-Means clustering to categorize canals into high, moderate, and low performance groups. Ethical considerations included obtaining informed consent and ensuring respondent anonymity.
The analysis revealed significant disparities in social performance across the 10 subsidiary canals (BP14, S15, S16, S17, SP18, S20, SP22G, SP22D, SP23, BP25). Upstream canals (BP14, S15, S16, S17) consistently scored above 65 on FSI, WADI, and EII, indicating robust satisfaction, equitable water access, and economic outcomes, likely due to sufficient water availability. In contrast, downstream canals (SP22G, SP22D, SP23, BP25) scored poorly (median: 18–30), reflecting systemic inequities (Table 1, Figures 1–2). K-Means clustering classified canals into high, moderate (SP18, S20), and low-performance groups, with downstream canals requiring urgent interventions (Figure 3). Notably, FPI performed poorly across all clusters (median ≈ 25) and showed no significant correlation with other indicators (r ≈ 0, Table 2), despite its high weight (0.35), suggesting deep-rooted institutional barriers to participation. Qualitative findings identified water distribution challenges (frequency = 8), stakeholder dissatisfaction (frequency = 7), and low participation (frequency = 6) as dominant issues (Figure 4). A strong correlation between WADI and EII (r = 0.74) highlighted the critical role of equitable water access in driving economic benefits. ANOVA confirmed significant differences in FSI, WADI, and EII across canals (p < 0.01), but not in FPI (p = 0.47), indicating uniform participation challenges. Similar dispersion patterns in indicator scores across clusters suggest pervasive systemic issues, such as inadequate training and weak incentives, affecting the entire scheme.
This study underscores significant social performance disparities between upstream and downstream canals in the Langarud segment of the Sefidroud Irrigation Scheme, driven by inequitable water distribution and weak participation mechanisms. The poor performance of FPI, despite its high importance, and its lack of correlation with other indicators highlight a critical gap in institutional frameworks and trust between farmers and managers. Drawing on social capital (Bourdieu, 1986) and water governance theories (Ostrom, 1990), the findings suggest that low social capital and ineffective local institutions exacerbate participation and equity challenges. To enhance social performance, we recommend: (1) strengthening social capital through participatory training programs to foster farmer engagement; (2) revising water distribution infrastructure to address downstream inequities, as supported by Seyed Hoshiyar et al. (2021); (3) adopting time-based water allocation strategies, as demonstrated by Zahir et al. (2024); (4) implementing regular training for farmers and managers to enhance technical and managerial capacities (Gebeyehu, 2025); and (5) promoting participatory governance through transparent decision-making and stakeholder collaboration (D’Agostino et al., 2020; Megdal et al., 2017). An integrated approach prioritizing participation, equity, and satisfaction is essential for sustainable irrigation management. Future research should employ more nuanced participation metrics and larger samples to further explore these dynamics.
Conceptualization, methodology, and data collection were collaboratively designed and executed by all authors. Quantitative and qualitative analysis was conducted by Afshin Ashrafzadeh and validated by Jaber Salepour Laghani and Morteza Lotfirad. Morteza Lotfirad led the literature review and theoretical framing. All authors contributed to writing, reviewing, and editing the manuscript, ensuring a cohesive final submission.
The datasets generated and analyzed in this study, including questionnaire responses and interview transcripts, are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, subject to ethical and privacy considerations. The Python scripts used for data analysis are also available for academic purposes upon request.
We express our sincere gratitude to the farmers of the Langarud canal for their participation in completing the questionnaires and to the provincial authorities for facilitating access to the data used in this study. We also thank the water engineering experts and local stakeholders for their valuable insights during the validation of the research instruments.
The authors avoided data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and misconduct.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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