A Review of Fundamentals and Applications of Sediment Connectivity Index in Soil Erosion Studies

Document Type : Review

Authors

1 PhD Candidate in Soil Resource Management, Department of Soil Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahrekord University, Iran

2 Professor, Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Tehran, Iran.

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran.

4 Associate Professor, Department of soil Engineering and Science, Terhran University, Karaj, Iran.

Abstract

Identification of sediment production areas, patterns of its delivery from sources to the transport network and the location of deposition sinks are necessary to manage soil erosion. The term connectivity describes the relationship between the sources of runoff and sediment production in the upstream of the watershed and the corresponding sedimentation areas in the downstream. Based on the approach used, there are two types of structural connectivity and functional connectivity. Connectivity index (IC) is one of the most widely used indices to quantify sediment connectivity. The selection of an appropriate weighting factor is one of the challenging issues in IC calculation and it is chosen according to the conditions of each region, the characteristics of the soil surface and available data as well. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of reviewing, analysis and collecting past studies so far in order to have a comprehensive look at the methods of quantification of IC and introducing more appropriate approaches for future research in this field. This study reviewed 90 studies related to different dimensions of IC. The review of 25 studies on IC weighting factor published between 2008 to 2022 showed that the two frequently used variables are the C factor of USLE and surface roughness (31% and 25% respectively).It is also suggested that sediment connectivity can be investigated at different time scales, taking into account both structural and functional connectivity. As a result, with better understanding of sediment connectivity, it can be used as a tool for sustainable management of watersheds.

Keywords

References

Andreazzini, M. J., Degiovanni, S. B. Benito, M. E. and Echevarria, K. V. (2021). Development and application of a sediment connectivity index to small fluvial catchments: a case study in Arenoso stream, Córdoba, Argentina. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80(8), 1-20.
Arabkhedri, M. (2015). The possibility of estimation of long-term average annual erosion based on measurements of erosion from a few rainfall events. Extension and Development of Watershed Management, 3(11), 7-1. (In Farsi)
Arabkhedri, M., Heidary, K. and Parsamehr, M. R. (2021). Relationship of sediment yield to connectivity index in small watersheds with similar erosion potentials. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 21(7), 2699–2708.
Baartman, J. E. M., Masselink, R. Keesstra, S. D. and Temme, A. J. A. M. (2013). Linking landscape morphological complexity and sediment connectivity. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 38, 1457–1471.
Babbie, E. R. (2013). The practice of social research. Wadsworth Cengage Learning: Belmont, CA. 608 pages.
Balaguer-Puig, M., Marqués-Mateu, A. LuisLerma, J. and Ibáñez-Asensio, S. (2017). Estimation of small-scale soil erosion in laboratory experiments with structure from motion photogrammetry. Geomorphology, 295, 285-296.
Batista, P., Fiener, P. Scheper, S. and Alewell, C. (2021). A conceptual model-based sediment connectivity assessment for patchy agricultural catchments. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 231, 1-33.
Bayat, R. and Moradi, S.H. (2014). Review of research conducted on the sediment delivery ratio. Extension and Development of Watershed Management, 2(5), 27-26. (In Farsi)
Bertuzzi, P., Rauws, G. and Courault, D. (1990). Testing roughness indices to estimate soil surface roughness changes due to simulated rainfall. Soil and Tillage Research, 17, 87-99.
Bonham, L. C. (1980). Migration of hydrocarbons in compacting basins. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 64 (4), 549–567
Borselli, L., Cassi, P. and Torri, D. (2008). Prolegomena to sediment and flow connectivity in the landscape: A GIS and field numerical assessment. Catena, 75, 268–277.
Bracken, L. J., Turnbull, L. Wainwright, J. and Bogaart, P. (2015). Sediment connectivity: a framework for understanding sediment transfer at multiple scales. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 40(2), 177–188.
Bracken, L. J. and Croke, J. (2007). The concept of hydrological connectivity and its contribution to understanding runoff dominated geomorphic systems. Hydrological Processes, 21(13), 1749–1763.
Burt, T.P. and Gardiner, A. T. (1982). The permanence of stream networks in Britain: some further comments. Earth Surface Processes Landforms, 7(4), 327–332.
Buter, A., Spitzer, A. Comiti, F. and Heckmann, T. (2020). Geomorphology of the Sulden River basin (Italian Alps) with a focus on sediment connectivity. Journal of Maps, 16(2), 890–901.
Cantreul, V., Bielders, C. Calsamiglia, A. and Degré, A. (2018). How pixel size affects a sediment connectivity index in central Belgium. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43(4), 884-893.
Cavalli, M., Trevisani, S. Comiti, F. and Marchi, L. (2013). Geomorphometric assessment of spatial sediment connectivity in small Alpine catchments. Geomorphology, 188, 31–41.
Cislaghi, A. and Bischetti, G. B. (2019). Source areas, connectivity, and delivery rate of sediments in mountainous-forested hillslopes: A probabilistic approach. Science of the Total Environment, 652, 1168–1186.
Di Stefano, C. and Ferro, V. (2018). Modelling sediment delivery using connectivity components at the experimental SPA2 basin, Sicily (Italy). Journal of Mountain Science, 15(9), 1868–1880.
Ding, W. and Huang, C. (2017). Effects of soil surface roughness on interrill erosion processes and sediment particle size distribution. Geomorphology, 295, 801-810.
FAO and ITPS. (2015). Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR) – Main Report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, Rome, Italy.
Favey, E., Geiger, A. Gudmundsson, G. H. and Wehr, A. (2003). Evaluating the potential of an airborne laser-scanning system for measuring volume changes of glaciers. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 81(4), 555-561.
Fernández, C., Fernández‐Alonso, J. M. and Vega, J. A. (2020). Exploring the effect of hydrological connectivity and soil burn severity on sediment yield after wildfire and mulching. Land Degradation and Development, 31(13), 1611-1621.
Florinsky, I. V. (2016). Digital Elevation Models. Digital Terrain Analysis in Soil Science and Geology, 77–108.
Foerster, S., Wilczok, C. Brosinsky, A. and Segl, K. (2014). Assessment of sediment connectivity from vegetation cover and topography using remotely sensed data in a dryland catchment in the Spanish Pyrenees. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 14(12), 1982–2000.
Fressard, M. and Cossart, E. (2019). A graph theory tool for assessing structural sediment connectivity: Development and application in the Mercurey vineyards (France). Science of the Total Environment, 651, 2566–2584.
Fryirs, K. A., Brierley, G. J. Preston, N. J. and Kasai, M. (2007). Buffers, barriers and blankets: the (dis)connectivity of catchment-scale sediment cascades. Catena, 70(1), 49–67.
Gay, A., Cerdan, O. Mardhel, V. and Desmet, M. (2016). Application of an index of sediment connectivity in a lowland area. Journal of Soils Sediments, 16(1), 280–293.
Gerami, Z., Arabkhedri, M. Asadi, H. and Bayat, R. (2017). Suspended sediment changes under the influence of rainfall erosivity cycle in Sorkhab watershed. Iranian Journal of Watershed Management Science, 11(38), 61-72. (In Farsi)
Gerami, Z., Arabkhedri, M. Karimi, A. and Asadi, H. (2022). An appropriate weighting factor for calculating sediment connectivity index in bare tilled soils. Watershed Management Research Journal, in publishing. (In Farsi)
Goldin, B., Rudaz, B. and Bardou, E. (2016). Application of a sediment connectivity GIS-based index in a basin undergoing glacier retreat: the case study of the Navizence catchment. Rendiconti online della Società Geologica Italiana, 39, 35-38.
Grauso, S., Pasanisi, F. and Tebano, C. (2018). Assessment of a Simplified Connectivity Index and Specific Sediment Potential in River Basins by Means of Geomorphometric Tools. Geosciences, 8(2), 48.
Grisak, G. E., Pickens, J. F. and Cherry, J. A. (1980). Solute transport through fractured media: 2. Column study of fractured till. Water Resources Research, 16(4), 731–739.
He, S., Qin, F. Zheng, Z. and Li, T. (2018). Changes of soil microrelief and its effect on soil erosion under different rainfall patterns in a laboratory experiment. Catena, 162, 203–215.
Heckmann, T., Cavalli, M. Cerdan, O. Foerster, S. Javaux, M. Lode, E. Smetanová, A. Vericat, D. and Brardinoni, F. (2018). Indices of sediment connectivity: opportunities, challenges and limitations. Earth-Science Reviews, 187, 77–108.
Heckmann, T., Schwanghart, W. and Phillips, J. D. (2014). Graph theory — recent developments of its application in geomorphology. Geomorphology, 243, 130–146.
Hohle, J. (2009). DEM generation using a digital large format frame camera. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 75(1), 87-93.
Houben, P. (2008). Scale linkage and contingency effects of field-scale and hillslope-scale controls of long-term soil erosion: Anthropogeomorphic sediment flux in agricultural loess watersheds of Southern Germany. Geomorphology, 101, 172–191.
Jester, W. and Klik, A. (2005). Soil surface roughness measurement—methods, applicability, and surface representation. Catena, 64(2-3), 174–192.
Jing, Y., Zhao, Q. Lu, M. Wang, A. Yu, J. Liu, Y.  and Ding, S. (2022). Effects of road and river networks on sediment connectivity in mountainous watersheds. Science of The Total Environment, 826, 154189.
Jourgholami, M. and Labelle, E. R. (2020). Effects of plot length and soil texture on runoff and sediment yield occurring on machine-trafficked soils in a mixed deciduous forest. Annals of Forest Science, 77, 19.
Kedich, A., Uspensky, M. Tsyplenkov, A. Kharchenko, S. and Golosov, V. (2021). Sediment connectivity in the Koiyavgan glacier's cirques (Adyl-Su river basin, Caucasus, Russia). European Geosciences Union, 21-16175.
Keesstra, S., Nunes, J. P. Saco, P. Parsons, T. Poeppl, R. Masselink, R. and Cerdà, A. (2018). The way forward: Can connectivity be useful to design better measuring and modelling schemes for water and sediment dynamics?. Science of The Total Environment, 644, 1557–1572.
Kirchner, J. W., Finkel, R. C. Riebe, C. S. Granger, D. E. Clayton, J. L. King, J. G. and Megahan, W. F. (2001). Mountain erosion over 10 yr, 10 ky, and 10 my time scales. Geology, 29(7), 591–594.
Laburda, T., Krása, J. Zumr, D. Devátý, J. Vrána, M. Zambon, N. Johannsen, L. L. Klik, A. Strauss, P. and Dostál, T. (2021). SfM‐MVS Photogrammetry for Splash Erosion Monitoring under Natural Rainfall. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 46(5), 1067–1082.
Liu, W., Shi, C. Ma, Y. and Wamg, Y. (2022). Evaluating sediment connectivity and its effects on sediment reduction in a catchment on the Loess Plateau, China. Geoderma, 408, 115566.
Liu, W., Shi, C. Ma, Y. Li, H. and Ma, X. (2021). Land use and land cover change-induced changes of sediment connectivity and their effects on sediment yield in a catchment on the Loess Plateau in China. Catena, 207, 105688.
Lizaga, I., Quijano, L. Palazón, L. Gaspar, L. and Navas, A. (2016). Enhancing Connectivity Index to Assess the Effects of Land Use Changes in a Mediterranean Catchment. Land Degradation and Development, 29(3), 663–675.
Llena, M., Vericat, D. Cavalli, M. Crema, S. and Smith, M. W. (2019). The effects of land use and topographic changes on sediment connectivity in mountain catchments. Science of the Total Environment, 660, 899-912.
López-Vicente, M., Kramer, H. and Keesstra, S. (2021). Effectiveness of soil erosion barriers to reduce sediment connectivity at small basin scale in a fire-affected forest. Journal of Environmental Management, 278, 111510.
Lu, X., Li, Y. Washington-Allen, R. A. and Li, Y. (2019). Structural and sedimentological connectivity on a rilled hillslope. Science of the Total Environment, 655, 1479–1494.
Mahoney, T., Fox, J. Al-Aamery, N. and Clare, E. (2020). Integrating connectivity theory within watershed modelling part I: Model formulation and investigating the timing of sediment connectivity. Science of The Total Environment, 740, 140385.
Marchi, L. and Dalla Fontana, G. (2005). GIS morphometric indicators for the analysis of sediment dynamics in mountain basins. Environmental Geology, 48(2), 218–228.
McCool, D. K. and Williams, J. D. (2008). Soil Erosion by Water. Encyclopedia of Ecology, 3284–3290.
Messenzehl, K., Hoffmann, T. and Dikau, R. (2014). Sediment connectivity in the high-alpine valley of Val Müschauns, Swiss National Park — linking geomorphic field mapping with geomorphometric modelling. Geomorphology, 221, 215–229.
Mishra, K., Sinha, R. Jain, V. Nepal, S. and Uddin, K. (2019). Towards the assessment of sediment connectivity in a large Himalayan river basin. Science of The Total Environment, 661, 251-265.
Morgan, R. P. C. (2005). Soil Erosion and Conservation. Third edition. Blackwell Publishing. 320 pages.
Najafi, S., Dragovich, D. Heckmann, T. and Sadeghi, S. H. R. (2021). Sediment connectivity concepts and approaches. Catena, 196, 104880.
Najafi, S., Sadeghi, S. H. R. and Heckmann, T. (2017). Temporospatial Variations of Structural Sediment Connectivity Patterns in Taham-Chi Watershed in Zanjan Province, Iran. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation, 24(3), 131-147.
Najafi, S., Sadeghi, S. H. R. and Heckmann, T. (2014). Concept and Role of structural and functional sediment connectivity in sediment management of watersheds. Extension and Development of Watershed Management, 3(8), 53-58. (In Farsi)
Nouwakpo, S., Huang, C. Bowling, L. Owens, P. and Weltz, M. (2021). Inferring sediment transport capacity from soil microtopography changes on a laboratory hillslope. Water, 13(7), 929.
Ortíz-Rodríguez, A. J., Borselli, L. and Sarocchi, D. (2017). Flow connectivity in active volcanic areas: Use of index of connectivity in the assessment of lateral flow contribution to main streams. Catena, 157, 90–111.
Parsons, A. J., Bracken, L. Poeppl, R. E. Wainwright, J. and Keesstra, S. D. (2015). Introduction to special issue on connectivity in water and sediment dynamics. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 40, 1275–1277.
Persichillo, M. G., Bordoni, M. Cavalli, M. Crema, S. and Meisina, C. (2018). The role of human activities on sediment connectivity of shallow landslides. Catena, 160, 261–274.
Poeppl, R. E., Fryirs, K. A. Tunnicliffem, J. and Brierley, G. J. (2020). Managing sediment (dis)connectivity in fluvial systems. Science of the Total Environment, 736, 139627.
Poesen, J. (2018). Soil erosion in the anthropocene: research needs. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43, 64-84.
Reaney, S.M., L.J. Bracken and M.J. Kirkby. (2014). The importance of surface controls on overland flow connectivity in semi-arid environments: results from a numerical experimental approach. Hydrological Processes, 28(4), 2116–2128.
Refahi, H. G. H. (2016). Water erosion and its control. Tehran: University of Tehran Press, (Sixth ed.). 672 pages. (In Farsi)
Renschler, C. S. and Harbor, J. (2002). Soil erosion assessment tools from point to regional scales—the role of geomorphologists in land management research and implementation. Geomorphology, 47(2),189–209.
Saleh, A. (1993). Soil roughness measurement: Chain method. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 48(6), 527-529.
Sun, L., J.L. Zhou, Q. Cai, S. Liu and J. Xiao. (2021). Comparing surface erosion processes in four soils from the Loess Plateau under extreme rainfall events. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 9(4), 520-531.
Trevisani, S. and Cavalli, M. (2016). Topography-based flow-directional roughness: potential and challenges. Earth Surface Dynamics, 4(2), 343–358.
Turley, M., Hassan, M. A. and Slaymaker, O. (2021). Quantifying sediment connectivity: Moving toward a holistic assessment through a mixed methods approach. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 46(12), 2501-2519.
Uber, M., Nord, G. Legout, C. and Cea, L. (2020). How do modeling choices and erosion zone locations impact the representation of connectivity and the dynamics of suspended sediments in a multi-source soil erosion model?. Earth Surface Dynamics, 9, 123–144.
Upadhayay, H. R., Lamichhane, S. Bajracharya, R. M. Cornelis, W. Collins, A. L. and Boeckx, P. (2020). Sensitivity of source apportionment predicted by a Bayesian tracer mixing model to the inclusion of a sediment connectivity index as an informative prior: Illustration using the Kharka catchment (Nepal). Science of The Total Environment, 713,136703.
Ventura, E., Nearing, M. A. Amore, E. and Norton, L. D. (2002). The study of detachment and deposition on a hillslope using a magnetic tracer. Catena, 48, 149-161.
Wang, C. and Zhang, G. (2022). Spatial variation in sediment connectivity of small watershed along a regional transect on the loess plateau. Catena, 217: 106473.
Wang, L., Zheng, F. Liu, G. Zhang, X. J. Wilson, G. V. Shi, H. and Liu, X. (2021). Seasonal changes of soil erosion and its spatial distribution on a long gentle hillslope in the Chinese Mollisol region. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 9, 394-404.
Williams, C. J., Pierson, F. B. Robichaud, P. R. Al-Hamdan, O. Z. Boll, J. and Strand, E. K. (2016). Structural and functional connectivity as a driver of hillslope erosion following disturbance. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 25, 306–321.
Wilson, J. P. and Gallant, J. C. (2000). Terrain analysis: Principles and applications, Terrain analysis: Principles and applications. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. 512 pages.
Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D. (1978). Predicting rainfall erosion losses — a guide to conservation planning. Agriculture Handbook, 537. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 58 pages.
Wohl, E., Brierely, G. D. Cadol, T. J. Coulthard, T. Covino, K. A. Fryirs, G. Grant, R. G. Hilton, S. N. Lane, F. J. Magilligan, K. M. Meitzen, P. Passalacqua, R. E. Poppl, S. Rathburn, L. and Sklar, L.S. (2018). Connectivity as an emergent property of geomorphic systems. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 44(1), 4-26.
Wu, J., Baartman, J. E. M. and Nunes, J. P. (2021). Comparing the impacts of wildfire and meteorological variability on hydrological and erosion responses in a Mediterranean catchment. Land Degradation and Development, 32(2), 640-653.
Zanandrea, F., Michel, G. P. and Kobiyama, M. (2020). Impedance influence on the index of sediment connectivity in a forested mountainous catchment. Geomorphology, 351, 106962.
Zanandrea, F., Michel, G. P. Kobiyama, M. Censi, G. and Abatti, B. H. (2021). Spatial-temporal assessment of water and sediment connectivity through a modified connectivity index in a subtropical mountainous catchment. Catena, 204, 105380.
Zhang, Y., Huang, C. Zhang, W. Chen, J. and Wang, L. (2021).The concept, approach, and future research of hydrological connectivity and its assessment at multiscales. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 52724–52743.
Zhao, G., Gao, P. Tian, P. Sun, W. Hu, J. and Mu, X. (2020). Assessing sediment connectivity and soil erosion by water in a representative catchment on the Loess Plateau, China. Catena, 185, 104284.
Zheng, Z. C., He, S. Q. and Wu, F. Q. (2012). Relationship between soil surface roughness and hydraulic roughness coefficient on sloping farmland. Water Science and Engineering, 5(2), 191-201.
Zingaro, M., Refice, A. D’Addabbo, A. Hostache, R. Chini, M. and Capolongo, D. (2020). Experimental Application of Sediment Flow Connectivity Index (SCI) in Flood Monitoring. Water, 12(7), 1857.
Zingaro, M., Refice, A. Giachetta, E. D’Addabbo, A. Lovergine, F. De Pasquale, V. Pepe, G. Brandolini, P. Cevasco, A. and Capolongo, D. (2019). Sediment mobility and connectivity in a catchment: A new mapping approach. Science of the Total Environment, 672, 763-775.
Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research
Volume 53, Issue 9
November 2023
Pages 2191-2208

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics